A surface-to-air missiles ( SAM ), or ground-to-air missiles ( GTAM ), is a missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy aircraft or other missiles. This is one type of antiaircraft system; in the modern armed forces, the missiles have replaced most other anti-air attack weapons, with anti-aircraft weapons pushing special roles.
The first serious effort on SAM development occurred during World War II, although no operational system was introduced. Further developments in the 1940s and 1950s led to the first operational system introduced by most troops during the second half of the 1950s. Smaller systems, suitable for short-range work, flourished through the 1960s and 1970s, to modern human-portable systems. The Shipborne system follows the evolution of a land-based model, starting with long range weapons and continuing to evolve toward smaller designs to provide layered defenses that have propelled the gun-based system into the shortest spacing role.
American Nike Ajax is SAM's first operational control missile system, and the Soviet Union S-75 Dvina is the most widely produced SAM. Modern examples are widely used including Patriot and S-300 wide area systems, Navy missiles SM-6, and short-range portable human systems such as Stinger and Strela-3.
Video Surface-to-air missile
History
The first known idea for guided surface-to-air missiles was in 1925, when a steering system was installed where the rocket would follow the spotlight of light into the target. Selenium cells are installed at the tip of each of the four rocket fins, with the cells facing backwards. When a selenium cell is no longer in the light, it will be directed in the opposite direction back toward the light. The first historical mention of the concept and design of surface-to-air missiles in which the image is presented, was by inventor Gustav Rasmus in 1931, who proposed a design that would be home to the sound of aircraft engines.
World War II
During World War II, attempts have been initiated to develop surface-to-air missiles because it is generally assumed that flak is not of much use compared to bombers whose performance continues to improve. The deadly radius of the flak shell is small enough, and the possibility of giving a "hit" is essentially a fixed percentage per round. To attack the target, shoot continuously while the aircraft is within reach to launch as many shells as possible, increasing the likelihood that one of them will end in a deadly span. Against the Boeing B-17, which operates only within the reach of German eighty-eight rifles, an average of 2,805 rounds must be fired per bomber destroyed.
Bombs flying at higher altitudes require larger rifles and shells to reach them. This greatly increases the cost of the system, and (usually) slows the rate of fire. Faster planes fly out of range faster, reducing the number of bullets fired at them. Against the ultimate design of war like Boeing B-29 Superfortress or jet-powered design like Arado Ar 234, flak is basically useless. This potential was evident in 1942, when Walther von Axthelm outlined a growing problem with flak defense that he predicted would soon deal with "aircraft speed and flight height that would gradually reach 1,000 km/h (620 mph) and between 10,000 -15,000m (33,000-49,000ft). "
German efforts
The first serious consideration of the SAM development project was a series of conversations that took place in Germany during 1941. In February, Friederich Halder proposed the concept of "rocket bulletproof", which led Walter Dornberger to ask Wernher von Braun to prepare a study of missiles can reach the altitude between 15,000 and 18,000 m (49,000 and 59,000 ft). Von Braun became convinced the better solution was a manned rocket interceptor, and told the T-Amt director, Roluf Lucht, in July. The directors of the Luftwaffe flak arm were not interested in the manned aircraft, and the resulting dispute between the teams delayed the serious consideration of the SAM for two years.
Von Axthelm published his concerns in 1942, and the subject sees serious consideration for the first time; the initial development program for solid-fuel rockets and solids became part of the Flame Development Program of 1942. At this point serious research by the PeenemÃÆ'¼nde team has been prepared, and several rocket designs have been proposed, including the 1940s Feuerlilie , and 1941's Wasserfall and Henschel Hs 117 Schmetterling . None of these projects saw any real progress until 1943, when the first major offensive by Allied air forces began. As the urgency of the problem increases, new designs are added, including Enzian and Rheintochter , as well as the targeted taifun designed to be launched in waves.
In general, this design can be divided into two groups. A set of designs will be pushed to the heights in front of the bombers and then flown in their direction with a direct approach at low speeds comparable to the manned aircraft. These designs include Feuerlilie, Schmetterling and Enzian. The second group is high-speed, usually supersonic, missiles that fly directly to their targets from below. These include Wasserfall and Rheintochter. Both types use radio controls for guides, either with the eyes, or by comparing missile and target returns on a single radar screen. The development of all these systems is done at the same time, and the war ends before they are ready for combat use. Clashes between various groups in the military also delayed development. Some extreme fighter designs, such as Comet and Natter , also overlap with SAM in the intended use.
Albert Speer specifically supports missile development. According to him, if they were developed consistently from the beginning, a massive offensive in 1944 would have been impossible.
Allied Efforts
The UK developed an unkempt anti-stealth rocket (operated under the name Z Battery) near the beginning of World War II, but the air superiority normally held by the Allies meant that the demand for similar weapons was not so acute.
When several Allied ships were drowned in 1943 by Henschel Hs 293 gliding bombs and Fritz X antiship missiles, Allied interests changed. These weapons are released from standing distance, with the remaining bombers outside the reach of the ship's anti-aircraft guns, and the missiles themselves are too small and fast to be attacked effectively. To combat this threat, the US Navy launched Operation Bumblebee to develop a ramjet-powered missile to destroy the aircraft that was launched over long distances. The initial performance objective was to target interceptations in the horizontal range of 10 miles (16 km) and 30,000 feet (9,100 m) altitude, with a 300-600 pound warhead for a probability of killing 30 to 60 percent. This weapon did not appear for 16 years, when entering the operation as Talos RIM-8.
The loss of heavy shipments to kamikaze attacks during the Philippine Liberation and Okinawa Battles provided additional incentives for missile development. This led to the efforts of British Fairey Stooge and Brakemine , and SAM-N-2 Lark US Navy. The Lark is having considerable difficulties and has never entered operational use. The end of the war led to British efforts being used strictly for research and development throughout their lives.
Post-war deployment
In the immediate post-war era, the development of SAM was taking place around the world, with some of them entering service in the early and mid-1950s.
Coming to the same conclusion as Germany about flak, the US Army started its Nike project in 1944. Led by Bell Labs, Nike Ajax was tested in production in 1952, becoming the first operational system of SAM when it was activated in March. 1954. Concerns about Ajax's ability to deal with aircraft formation led to a highly updated version of the same basic design entering service in 1958 as Nike Hercules, the first nuclear SAM armed. The US Air Force has also considered colliding weapons (such as German-controlled radio concepts) and launched Project Thumper in 1946. It was combined with another project, the Wizard, and emerged as CIM-10 Bomarc in 1959. < i> Bomarc has a range of more than 500 km, but quite expensive and somewhat unreliable.
The development of Oerlikon RSD 58 began in 1947, and was a secret held firmly until 1955. Early versions of the missile were available for purchase in early 1952, but never entered operational services. RSD 58 uses horseback guides, which have limited performance against high-speed aircraft, because missiles can not "lead" targets to the point of the collision. Examples are purchased by some countries for testing and training purposes, but no operational sales are performed.
The Soviet Union started the development of the SAM system in earnest with the opening of the cold war. Joseph Stalin worried that Moscow would be the target of US and British air strikes, such as the attack on Berlin, and, in 1951, he demanded that the missile system to deal with the 9 bombers attack be built as soon as possible. This led to the S-25 Berkut system (SA-1 in NATO terminology), which was designed, developed and deployed in a rush program. The initial unit entered service operations on May 7, 1955, and the entire system that rings Moscow fully activated in June 1956. The S-25 is a static system, but the effort is also incorporated into smaller designs that will be much more mobile. It appeared in 1957 as the famous S-75 Dvina (SA-2), a very high-performance portable system, still operating until the 2000s. The Soviet Union remained at the forefront of SAM development throughout its history; and Russia has followed suit.
Early British developments with Stooge and Brakemine succeeded, but further development was limited to the postwar era. These efforts are repeated with the opening of the cold war, following the "Stage Plan" to improve the air defense of England with radar, fighters, and new missiles. Two competing designs were proposed for "Phase 1", based on common radar and control units, and this emerged as RAF Bristol Bloodhound in 1958, and Thunderbird Electrical British Army in 1959. The third design follows the United States Bumblebee > effort in terms of role and timeline, and entered service in 1961 as Sea Slug.
The war in Vietnam
The Vietnam War was the first modern war in which seriously guided anti-aircraft missiles challenged very sophisticated supersonic jet planes. It will also be the first and only time that the latest and most modern air defense technology of the Soviet Union and the most modern jet fighters and US bombers face each other in battle. Nearly 17,000 Soviet missile technicians, and operators/instructors deployed to North Vietnam in 1965 to help defend Hanoi against the American bombers, while the North Vietnamese missile completed the SAM training for six to nine months in the Soviet Union.
From 1965 to 1966, almost all of the 48 US jets were shot down by SAM over North Vietnam that was crushed by Soviet missile people. During the air defense of North Vietnam, a Russian SAM operator, Lieutenant Vadim Petrovich Shcherbakov, is credited with destroying 12 US planes out of 20 agreements. The Soviet Union provided 7,658 SAMs to North Vietnam, and their defense forces carried out about 5,800 launches, usually in triples. By the end of the war, about 205 aircraft had disappeared due to North Vietnam's surface-to-air missiles.
The USAF responds to this threat in an increasingly effective way. Initial attempts to directly attack the missile site as part of the Iron Hands Operation were generally unsuccessful, but the introduction of the Weapons aircraft carrying the Shrike missile and the Standard ARM missile changed many things dramatically. Hicks and tricks are followed when each side introduces new tactics to try to win. At the time of Operation Linebacker II in 1972, America had gained important information about S-75 performance and operations, and used this mission as a way of demonstrating strategic bomber's ability to operate in SAM-saturated environments. Their first mission came to show the opposite, with the loss of three B-52s and several others broken on a mission. The dramatic changes took place, and by the end of the series missions were done with additional husk, ECM, Iron Hand and other changes dramatically changed the score - North Vietnamese used almost all of their remaining missile stock to lose two more B -52s through a series of missions.
Smaller, faster
All of these early systems were "heavyweight" designs with limited mobility and required considerable set-up time. However, they are also more effective. In the early 1960s, the deployment of SAM has made high-speed high-speed flights in practical combat suicide. The way to avoid this is to fly lower, below the lines of a missile radar system. It demands very different planes, such as the F-111, TSR-2, and Panavia Tornado.
As a result, SAM evolved quickly in the 1960s. Since their targets are now forced to fly lower due to larger missiles, engagement will certainly be within a short distance, and occur quickly. A shorter range means missiles can be much smaller, which helps them in terms of mobility. By the mid-1960s, almost all modern armed forces had short-range missiles mounted on trucks or light armor that could move with the armed forces they were protecting. Examples include 2K12 Kub (SA-6) and 9K33 Osa (SA-8), MIM-23 Hawk, Rapier, Roland, and Crotale.
The introduction of marine camouflage missiles in the late 1960s and 1970s led to the addition of medium and short range designs for defense against these targets. The British Sea Paint is an early example specially designed to replace the 40 mm Bofors pistol in its mount, and become the first operational point of SAM protection. American Sea Sparrow RIM-7 quickly mushroomed into a wide variety of designs done by most of the navy. Many of these are adapted from earlier cell phone designs, but the special needs of the naval role have resulted in the continued presence of many specialized missiles.
MANPADS
As the aircraft moved lower, and the missile performance continued to improve, it finally became possible to build an effective portable human-proof missile. Known as MANPADS, the first example is the Royal Navy system known as Holman Projector, used as the last weapon on smaller vessels. Germany also produced similar melee weapons known as Fliegerfaust, but entered operations on a very limited scale. The performance gap between this weapon and the postwar fighter jet is so great that such a design would not be effective.
In the 1960s, technology has closed this gap to some extent, leading to the introduction of the Redeye FIM-43, SA-7 Grail and Blowpipe. A rapid improvement in the 1980s led to second-generation designs, such as the FIM-92 Stinger, 9K34 Strela-3 (SA-14) and Starstreak, with dramatically increased performance. In the 1990s to the 2010s, the Chinese had developed a design that drew the influence of this, especially the FN-6.
Through SAM evolution, improvements were also made to anti-aircraft artillery, but missiles pushed them into shorter roles. In the 1980s, the only remaining widely used was the airfield and ship defense points, especially against cruise missiles. In the 1990s, even these roles were being expanded by new MANPADS and similar melee weapons, such as RIM-116 Rolling Airframe missiles.
Maps Surface-to-air missile
General information
Surface-to-air missiles are classified based on guidance, mobility, altitude, and range.
Mobility, maneuverability, and range
Missiles capable of flying farther are generally heavier, and therefore less mobile. This leads to three "natural" classes of the SAM system; fixed or semi-mobile fixed long distance systems, systems mounted on flammable mid-sized vehicles and short-range human portable air defense systems (MANPADS).
Modern long-range weapons include the Patriot and S-300 (missile) systems, which have an effective range in the 150 km range, and offer relatively good mobility and short unlimited time. This compares to older systems of the same or less range, such as the Nike Hercules MIM-14 or S-75 Dvina, which requires a fixed base of considerable size. Much of this performance improvement is due to an increase in rocket fuel and the smaller the electronics in the guidance system. Some very long distance systems remain, especially the Russian S-400, which has a range of 400 km.
Medium designs, such as Rapier and 2K12 Kub, are specifically designed to be extremely mobile with very fast setup time, or zero. Many of these designs are mounted on armored vehicles, allowing them to keep pace with moving operations in conventional wars. After a large group to itself, medium range design has seen less development since the 1990s, as the focus has turned into an unconventional war.
Developments have also been made in onboard maneuvers. The Israeli Missile David Sling Stunner is designed to intercept the latest generation of tactical ballistic missiles at low altitudes. The multi-stage interceptor consists of a solid-fuel motor booster, followed by an asymmetrical assassin vehicle with sophisticated steering for super maneuverability during the killing phase. The three-pulse motor provides additional acceleration and maneuverability during the terminal phase.
The MANPAD system was first developed in 1960 and proved itself in battle during the 1970s. MANPAD usually has a range on the order of 3 km and effective against helicopter attacks and aircraft make ground attack. Against fixed wing aircraft, they can be very effective, forcing them to fly outside of missile envelopes and thereby greatly reduce their effectiveness in the role of ground attack. MANPAD systems are sometimes used with vehicle mounts to improve maneuverability, such as the Avenger system. This system has penetrated the performance niche previously filled by a special mid-range system.
Vessel-based anti-ship missiles are also regarded as SAMs, although in practice it is expected that they will be used more to fight sea skimming missiles than airplanes. Nearly all surface war ships can be armed with SAM, and the Navy's SAM is a necessity for all front-line surface ships. Several types of warships specialize in anti-air battles such as the Ticonderoga - class explorers equipped with Aegis combat systems or Kirov class cruisers with the S-300PMU missile system Favorites . Modern warships can carry all three types (from a short distance to a short distance) from the SAM as part of their multi-layered air defenses.
Guidance system
The SAM system is generally divided into two broad groups based on their guidance system, which uses radar and that uses several other means.
Long-range missiles generally use radar for early detection and guidance. Early SAM systems generally used radar pointers and provided guidance information to missiles using the radio control concept, which is called in the field as a command guide. Throughout the 1960s, the concept of semi-active radar (SARH) became much more common. In SARH, the radar's radar broadcast reflection is picked up by the receiver in the missile, which is where the signal is. SARH has the advantage of abandoning most of the equipment on land, while also eliminating the need for earth stations to communicate with missiles after launch.
The smaller missiles, especially MANPAD, generally use an Infrared homing guidance system. It has the advantage of being "fire-and-forget", once launched they will go home on their own targets without the necessary external signal. In comparison, the SARH system requires radar tracking to illuminate targets, which may require them to be exposed through attacks. The system incorporating infrared seekers as a terminal guidance system on missiles using SARH is also known, such as MIM-46 Mauler, but this is rarely the case.
Some newer closer systems use variations of SARH techniques, but based on laser illumination, not radar. It has the advantage of acting as small and very fast, as well as very accurate. Some older designs use pure optical tracking and guidance commands, perhaps the most notable example of this is the British Rapier system, which was originally an all-optical system with high accuracy.
All the SAM systems from the smallest to the largest generally include being identified as a friend or enemy system (IFF) to help identify targets before being involved. Although the IFF is not as important as MANPAD, since targets are almost always visually identified before launch, most modern MANPAD do include it.
Acquisition target
Long-term systems generally use a radar system for target detection, and depending on system generation, can "hand-off" to a separate tracking radar for attack. Short-range systems are more likely to be fully visual for detection.
Hybrid systems are also common. Chaparral MIM-72 is fired optically, but is usually operated with a short-range, early-warning radar that displays targets to the operator. This radar, FAAR, was taken to the field with Gama Goat and mounted behind the line. Information is forwarded to Chaparral via a data link. Similarly, the English Rapier system includes a simple radar that displays the rough direction of the target on a series of lights arranged in a circle. The missile operator will direct the telescope in a rough direction and then hunt down the target visually.
See also
- List of surface-to-air missiles
- Anti-air battles
- Portable air defense system
- Missile guides
- List of NATO reporting names for surface-to-air missiles
- Missile list
- List of anti-aircraft weapons
- Enemy Air Defense Suppression (SEAD), mission to seek and destroy the installation of SAM and AA weapons. The mission of SEAD in the United States Air Force is designated "Wild Weasel".
References
- Notes
- Quote
- References
External links
- Media related to Surface-to-air missiles on Wikimedia Commons
- The World End Missile System from the American Federation of American Scientists sites
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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